Journal of Experimental Agriculture International

Organic and Natural Farming for Climate-smart Agriculture

Kunal Narwal — 2026-08-13

Organic and natural farming are increasingly promoted as responses to the coupled crises of climate change, soil degradation and input dependence. Yet their climate-smart credentials are frequently asserted from labels or individual practices rather than evaluated across productivity, adaptation and mitigation, with food-system and distributional effects made explicit. This critical narrative review synthesises peer-reviewed evidence published from 1990 to 5 June 2026, with earlier foundational material retained where necessary. It distinguishes regulated organic agriculture from heterogeneous natural-farming movements and evaluates both through a climate-smart framework. Organic systems generally enhance soil biological activity, on-farm biodiversity and input-use efficiency, and they can improve water regulation and yield stability where rotations, cover crops, organic amendments and diversified habitats are well designed. They also avoid most synthetic nitrogen fertiliser and pesticide inputs. These advantages do not translate automatically into lower climate impacts: average yield gaps, uncertain additionality and permanence of soil carbon, manure-related nitrous oxide, nutrient import dependence and land-use displacement can offset field-level gains. Evidence for natural farming is promising but geographically concentrated, especially in India; recent farm studies report competitive yields, lower purchased-input costs and biodiversity benefits, whereas modelling warns of nutrient constraints during large-scale conversion. The decisive unit of analysis is therefore the farming system in its landscape, dietary and nutrient-cycling context, not the production label. Climate-smart transitions should combine practice bundles with outcome-based measurement, region-specific nutrient budgets, safeguards against leakage, farmer-centred learning and policies that reward public goods without shifting risk to labour-constrained or resource-poor households. The review concludes that organic and natural farming can make substantial contributions to climate-smart agriculture, but only conditionally and as components of broader food-system transformation.

The Chemical Treadmill in Tropical Oilseed and Cash-Crop Agriculture: Resistance Evolution, Comparative Case Studies and Integrated Management in India and Beyond

Satya Narayan Satapathy — 2026-08-14

Pesticide resistance in tropical agriculture is often treated as a technical defect that can be corrected by replacing a failing product. This interpretation overlooks the chemical treadmill: an eco-evolutionary feedback in which repeated exposure selects resistant genotypes, control failure encourages higher doses or faster product substitution, and simplified production systems preserve the selection regime. The problem is especially consequential in oilseed and cash crops because cotton, soybean, groundnut, Brassica oilseeds and plantation crops commonly connect long growing seasons, overlapping hosts, mobile pest populations and strong commercial incentives for preventive treatment. This critical narrative review evaluates resistance evolution and management through Indian evidence and global comparators, with emphasis on insecticides, transgenic insecticidal traits, herbicides and fungicides. Literature published from 1980 to 5 June 2026 was selected through accessible scholarly indexes, digital object identifier records, official article pages and citation chaining, while foundational earlier studies were retained where conceptually necessary. Evidence is strongest for repeated field-evolved resistance in Indian cotton pests, including Helicoverpa armigera, Pectinophora gossypiella, Spodoptera litura and Bemisia tabaci. Comparative cases involving Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton in Arizona, glyphosate-resistant Amaranthus palmeri in cotton-soybean systems, soybean rust in Brazil and endosulfan-resistant coffee berry borer in New Caledonia show that different pesticide technologies can enter the same treadmill when exposure is spatially continuous and governance is fragmented. Resistance is generated by interacting target-site, metabolic, penetration, behavioural and genomic mechanisms, but its operational expression depends equally on refuges, crop calendars, product markets, diagnostics and collective action. Rotations and mixtures can delay failure only when their biological assumptions are satisfied; product substitution alone usually redistributes rather than removes selection. Durable management therefore requires coordinated reduction of exposure, diversification of mortality, preservation of susceptible populations, area-wide host and residue management, and surveillance that links phenotype to mechanism and field performance. The review concludes that resistance should be governed as a shared landscape resource problem rather than managed solely as an individual farm input decision.

Sustainable Weed Management in Conservation Agriculture: A Critical Synthesis of Ecological Processes, Diversified Tactics and Herbicide Stewardship

Krisanu Mondal — 2026-08-19

Conservation agriculture is built on minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop diversification, yet the reduction of tillage removes a historically important weed-control operation and can expose production systems to new ecological and evolutionary pressures. This critical narrative review evaluates how weed management can remain agronomically effective while preserving the soil, resource-use and resilience objectives of conservation agriculture. Peer-reviewed evidence was selected from accessible scholarly databases and indexes for the period 1 January 1990 to 9 June 2026, with earlier or later-dated records excluded from the evidence window and seminal concepts retained only when necessary. The synthesis focuses on weed seedbank redistribution, residue-mediated emergence, rotational diversity, cover crops, crop competitiveness, herbicide stewardship, strategic soil disturbance, precision interventions and adoption trade-offs. The evidence indicates that no-tillage does not have a uniform effect on weed pressure; outcomes depend on seedbank history, species traits, residue amount and persistence, crop sequence, herbicide programme and prevention of seed return. Cover crops and diversified rotations can reduce weed emergence and shift selection pressures, but their effects are variable and rarely sufficient as stand-alone control. Conversely, herbicide-intensive no-tillage can stabilise short-term control while accelerating resistance risk and, in severe cases, undermine continued conservation tillage. The strongest evidence supports integrated systems that deliberately combine preventive, cultural, biological or physical filters with judicious herbicide use, rather than treating either tillage or herbicides as binary choices. Strategic, infrequent disturbance and site-specific technologies may have roles where weed escapes threaten long-term system function, provided that soil-quality costs are measured rather than assumed. Sustainable weed management in conservation agriculture is therefore best understood as a dynamic system-design problem: management must suppress current weeds, reduce future seed rain, diversify selection pressures and protect the ecological functions that motivate conservation agriculture in the first place.

Effect of Humic Acid and Nano-NPK on Yield and Economics of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica Plenck)

Shiv Karan Singh Hada — 2026-08-13

A field experiment was conducted during the Rabi season of 2025–26 at the Research Farm of Mewar University, Gangrar, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, India. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomised block design with three replications and nine treatment combinations comprising three levels of humic acid (0, 0.5, and 1.0 g L⁻¹ water) and three levels of Nano-NPK (0, 2, and 4 mL L⁻¹ water). The investigation evaluated the effects of humic acid and Nano-NPK on broccoli yield and production economics. The results showed that humic acid significantly influenced the yield attributes of broccoli. Humic acid at 1.0 g L⁻¹ water (H₂) recorded the highest average curd weight (723.92 g) and curd yield (249.75 q ha⁻¹), followed by humic acid at 0.5 g L⁻¹ water (H₁), which produced an average curd weight of 537.28 g and a curd yield of 186.06 q ha⁻¹. Nano-NPK at 4 mL L⁻¹ water (N₂) recorded the highest average curd weight (609.79 g) and curd yield (210.78 q ha⁻¹), followed by Nano-NPK at 2 mL L⁻¹ water (N₁), which recorded an average curd weight of 548.64 g and a curd yield of 189.68 q ha⁻¹. Economically, the application of humic acid and Nano-NPK significantly increased the profitability of broccoli cultivation. Among the Nano-NPK levels, N₂ recorded the highest gross return (₹421,564 ha⁻¹), net return (₹302,494 ha⁻¹), and benefit:cost ratio (2.52), whereas the untreated control recorded the lowest economic returns. The higher profitability was primarily attributable to the increased marketable curd yield. These findings indicate that humic acid at 1.0 g L⁻¹ water and Nano-NPK at 4 mL L⁻¹ water improved broccoli yield and economic returns under the experimental conditions.

Temporal Variation in Leaf Nutrient Concentrations of Irrigated Jatropha curcas under Nitrogen Fertilization

Clayton Moura de Carvalho — 2026-08-13

Cultivation of Jatropha curcas L. has been promoted because of its potential as a non-edible oilseed crop for clean-energy applications and its adaptation to arid and semi-arid environments. This study evaluated temporal variation in foliar macro- and micronutrient concentrations in irrigated J. curcas under different nitrogen fertilisation doses. The field experiment was conducted in a semi-arid region of north-eastern Brazil using a randomised block design with split plots. Four nitrogen doses were evaluated, and post-treatment foliar sampling was conducted at 145 and 271 days after standardisation pruning; the 75-day sampling was used only as a pre-treatment baseline covariate. Healthy, mature leaf blades free from pest and disease damage were collected for nutrient analysis. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and manganese were determined. Nitrogen fertilisation did not significantly influence the foliar concentrations of the evaluated macro- or micronutrients under the studied conditions. Sampling period significantly affected the macronutrients and the foliar concentrations of iron and zinc, whereas manganese did not vary significantly with sampling period. Across the sampling periods, macronutrient concentrations followed the order N > Ca > K > Mg > P, while micronutrient concentrations followed Fe > Mn > Zn. These findings indicate that temporal variation in leaf nutrient status was more evident than the response to the tested nitrogen doses during the evaluated period.

Yield and Economics of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica Plenck) Response to Enriched-Vermiwash and Biofertilizers

Suraj Vishnoi — 2026-08-13

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica Plenck) productivity and profitability depend strongly on effective nutrient management. A field experiment was conducted during the Rabi season of 2025–26 at the Research Farm, Mewar University, Gangrar, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, to evaluate the effects of enriched vermiwash and biofertilisers on broccoli yield and economics. The experiment was arranged in a factorial randomised block design with three enriched-vermiwash levels: no application, 10 mL L⁻¹ water, and 15 mL L⁻¹ water; and three biofertiliser levels: no application, 3 kg ha⁻¹, and 5 kg ha⁻¹. The nine treatment combinations were replicated three times. Yield observations included primary and secondary curd weights, number of secondary curds per plant, average curd weight, and curd yield. Gross return, net return, and benefit:cost ratio were also determined. Enriched vermiwash at 15 mL L⁻¹ water recorded the highest primary curd weight (500.56 g), secondary curd weight (253.00 g), number of secondary curds per plant (9.21), average curd weight (753.56 g), and curd yield (257.68 q ha⁻¹). This treatment also produced the highest gross return (₹5,15,356 ha⁻¹), net return (₹3,88,422 ha⁻¹), and benefit:cost ratio (3.05) among the enriched-vermiwash levels. The V₂B₂ interaction recorded the maximum curd yield and economic returns. Under the study conditions, combined application of enriched vermiwash and biofertilisers improved broccoli yield and profitability.

Influence of L-Threonine Supplementation on Growth, Blood Profile, Antioxidant Capacity and Gut Integrity of Broiler Chickens

M. F. Kamil — 2026-08-13

This study was designed to determine the influence of dietary L-threonine supplementation above the NRC (1994)-recommended level on growth performance, blood profile, antioxidant capacity, gut morphology, and intestinal microbiota in broiler chickens during the starter and grower phases. In a 28-day feeding trial, one hundred and sixty (160) one-day-old Arbor Acres chicks were allotted to four dietary treatments, with five replicates of eight birds each, in a completely randomised design. Treatment 1 received the basal diet without L-threonine supplementation (control), whereas Treatments 2, 3, and 4 received the basal diet supplemented with L-threonine at levels 10%, 20%, and 30% above the NRC recommendation, respectively. On days 14 and 28, blood samples were analysed for haematological, serum biochemical, and antioxidant parameters. Furthermore, birds were slaughtered for gut morphological measurements and microbial-load determination following standard practices. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA at P = .05. During the starter phase, birds fed the diet containing 30% above-NRC threonine had higher total protein (40.24 g/L) and creatinine (88.01 µmol/L) concentrations than birds in the other treatments. During the grower phase, birds fed the diet containing 30% above-NRC threonine had a higher red blood cell count (2.45 × 10⁶/µL) than birds in the other treatment groups. Birds fed the diet containing 10% above-NRC threonine had higher superoxide dismutase activity during both the starter (1.11 U/mL) and grower (1.01 U/mL) phases than birds in the other treatments. During the grower phase, birds fed the diet containing 10% above-NRC threonine had a higher villus-height-to-crypt-depth ratio (8.11) than birds in the other groups, although the value was similar to that of birds fed the control diet (6.46). Birds fed the diet containing 20% above-NRC threonine had a lower total bacterial count (4.30 CFU/g) during the starter phase and a lower Escherichia coli count (2.36 CFU/g) during the grower phase than birds in the other treatments. In conclusion, L-threonine supplementation improved immune function, antioxidant defence, gut integrity, and microbial load without improving growth performance.

Evaluation of Selected Heavy Metal Concentrations in Soils Affected by Agricultural Waste Disposal in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Gloria, Emmanuel Essien — 2026-08-13

This study evaluated selected heavy-metal concentrations and soil physicochemical properties at agricultural-waste disposal sites in Abak Local Government Area, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Soil samples were obtained from sites affected by piggery manure, poultry manure, cassava mill effluent and palm oil mill effluent, together with unaffected control sites, at depths of 0–15, 15–30 and 30–45 cm. Particle-size distribution, pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable cations, exchangeable acidity, effective cation exchange capacity, base saturation, and total and extractable concentrations of Ni, Fe, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn were determined using standard laboratory procedures. Agricultural-waste-affected soils generally had higher pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, exchangeable bases, effective cation exchange capacity and base saturation than the control, while available phosphorus was highest in the control. Most fertility indicators declined with increasing soil depth. Total Ni, Cd and Cu concentrations exceeded the permissible limits applied in the study at several sites, whereas total Fe, Cr, Pb and Zn remained below their respective limits. Extractable metal concentrations were generally low or present in trace amounts, although extractable Ni was comparatively elevated in poultry-affected soil. The findings demonstrate that agricultural wastes can improve several soil-fertility characteristics while contributing to the accumulation of potentially harmful metals. Regular monitoring and controlled waste application are therefore required to maintain soil productivity and reduce long-term environmental risks.

Cost of Production and Marketing Efficiency of Sorghum in Bhind District of Madhya Pradesh, India

Rajat Singh Rajawat — 2026-08-14

A sound understanding of the cost structure, profitability and marketing efficiency of sorghum is essential for designing interventions that improve farm incomes in rainfed tracts of central India, yet district-level evidence combining both dimensions remains limited for Madhya Pradesh. This study estimated the cost of cultivation, returns and marketing efficiency of sorghum among 120 randomly selected growers from Gohad and Mehgaon blocks in Bhind district during the kharif season of 2025-26. Cost concepts recommended by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices were used to work out farm-size-wise costs and profitability, while marketing cost, marketing margin, price spread and marketing efficiency were estimated for the three marketing channels identified in the study area. The overall cost of cultivation (Cost C₃) was estimated at ₹43,520.62 per hectare, of which variable costs accounted for the larger share; gross income averaged ₹70,175.43 per hectare and net income ₹26,654.81 per hectare, yielding a benefit–cost ratio of 1.62 that confirmed the economic viability of the enterprise, with profitability rising with farm size up to the medium category. Among the three marketing channels identified—direct producer-to-consumer sale and two intermediary-based channels involving village merchants, commission agents and retailers—the direct channel recorded the lowest marketing cost (₹100/quintal) and price spread (₹100/quintal), the highest marketing efficiency (10.50) and the highest producer's share in the consumer's rupee (95.45%), while channels involving a longer chain of intermediaries more than doubled the price spread and roughly halved the producer's share. The results suggest that reducing intermediation through direct and farmer-collective marketing arrangements, alongside cost-reducing input support, offers the most direct route to improving farm profitability in the district. Effective institutional coordination among seed corporations, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), the state agricultural extension system, and market regulatory bodies is essential to ensure the long-term productivity, sustainability, and profitability of sorghum cultivation in the district.

Farm Income and Sustainability as Influenced by Farmer Producer Company (FPC) Membership: A Case Study from Hooghly District of West Bengal, India

Bhargab Nag — 2026-08-17

Farmer Producer Companies (FPCs) are intended to improve the economic position of small and marginal farmers through collective input procurement, production support, and market access. This study assessed the relationship between FPC membership, farm income, and organisational sustainability in Hooghly district, West Bengal, India. Two operational FPCs were purposively selected, and primary data were collected during 2021–22 from 40 respondents comprising 20 member farmers and 20 non-member farmers from comparable localities. Descriptive statistics, comparative analysis, stepwise multiple linear regression, and a five-point Likert scale were used. Member farmers obtained higher net returns from potato cultivation than non-members in both FPCs. The net income advantages were Rs. 53,867 per ha for Bengal Krishi Development FPC and Rs. 33,690 per ha for Bangabhumi FPC Ltd. Quality input use, operational holding, location, and managerial activities were retained as determinants of income, with the final regression model explaining 95% of the observed variation. Inadequate technical knowledge and difficulty in accessing markets were perceived as the most important constraints to FPC sustainability. The findings indicate that FPC membership is associated with improved farm profitability through lower production costs, better productivity, and improved price realisation. Strengthening technical capacity, managerial competence, extension support, and market linkages may improve the operational sustainability and economic contribution of FPCs.

Foliar Application of Potassium Silicate Suppresses Wheat Aphid (Sitobion avenae) Infestation and Improves Yield Attributes of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Tajinder Singh — 2026-08-17

Field-based alternatives to repeated insecticide use are needed for wheat aphid management. This study evaluated foliar potassium silicate at 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% for suppression of wheat aphids and improvement of yield attributes in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under field conditions at Khalsa College, Amritsar, Punjab, India, during the 2024–2025 Rabi season. The experiment followed a randomised block design with five treatments and three replications. Potassium silicate was applied at crown root initiation, tillering and jointing, while the untreated control received water sprays. Aphid populations were recorded weekly from the 8th to the 15th Standard Meteorological Week, and grain number per spike, test weight and grain yield were measured at harvest. Aphid abundance increased to a maximum during the 12th Standard Meteorological Week and declined thereafter. Potassium silicate significantly reduced aphid abundance in a concentration-dependent manner. The 2.0% treatment recorded the lowest seasonal mean aphid population (23.7 aphids per 10 plants), compared with 51.3 aphids per 10 plants in the untreated control, corresponding to a 53.8% reduction. The same treatment produced the highest grain number per spike (52.4), test weight (46.3 g) and grain yield (49.6 q ha⁻¹), with grain yield 22.2% higher than the control. Under the conditions of this study, foliar potassium silicate, particularly at 2.0%, was associated with lower aphid infestation and improved wheat yield attributes.

Foliar Application of Nano-Urea Enhances Growth, Yield and Biochemical Quality of Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) in Northern Bangladesh

Md Shahadat Hossain Khan — 2026-08-17

Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) is one of the leading beverage crops in terms of economic value worldwide, and sustainable nitrogen management is critical for maintaining productivity and leaf quality. Tea is a nitrogen-demanding perennial crop, yet field-based evidence regarding the effectiveness of foliar nano-urea remains limited. This study was conducted in northern Bangladesh to evaluate the effects of four different rates of foliar nano-urea on vegetative growth, fresh leaf yield and biochemical quality of tea. The experiment was conducted using the commercial tea clone BT-2 in a randomized complete block design. The treatments consisted of an unfertilized control, recommended fertilizer dose (RDF), and nano-urea at 100, 200, 300 or 400 mL acre⁻¹. Two successive application-harvest cycles were evaluated for growth traits, fresh leaf yield, chlorophyll, total polyphenols, flavonoids and caffeine. Compared with the control, foliar application of nano-urea significantly enhanced plant height, leaf length, leaf width, harvestable shoot numbers and fresh leaf yield. The higher rates (300–400 mL acre⁻¹) also enhanced chlorophyll and key biochemical quality attributes. In comparison to RDF, nano-urea at 300–400 mL acre⁻¹ performed statistically similarly for several growth, yield and quality traits. The present results provide field-based evidence that nano-urea application could potentially be used as a supplement instead of conventional fertilization to enhance canopy development and fresh leaf productivity while improving biochemical quality. These findings demonstrate that foliar nano-urea is an effective supplement to conventional nitrogen fertilization for improving tea growth and leaf quality under the agroecological conditions of northern Bangladesh.

Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Its Determinants among Poultry Farmers in Namakkal District, India

S. Nivetha — 2026-08-17

Agriculture is a mainstay of the Indian economy, and poultry farming has become one of its most dynamic livestock enterprises, contributing to rural income generation, livelihood security and the reduction of malnutrition among rural households. Requiring relatively modest capital investment while yielding quick and attractive returns, this enterprise has expanded rapidly in recent years. As entrepreneurship is increasingly recognised as a driver of economic progress, greater importance is being attached to nurturing entrepreneurial capacities among farm-level producers. Against this backdrop, a systematic study of the entrepreneurial profile of poultry growers in Namakkal district was undertaken. The specific objectives were to examine the profile characteristics of poultry farmers, assess their level of entrepreneurial behaviour, determine the association between profile characteristics and entrepreneurial behaviour, and identify the constraints encountered in poultry production. The investigation was conducted in Namakkal district, popularly termed the “Poultry Town” or “Egg City” because of its dense concentration of poultry units and large-scale egg production. The results showed that a majority (63.33 per cent) of respondents exhibited a medium level of entrepreneurial behaviour. Educational status and participation in training programmes had highly significant associations with entrepreneurial behaviour, whereas age, farm size, farming experience, extension agency contact and attitude towards poultry farming had significant associations. Regression analysis revealed that the selected independent variables together accounted for a considerable proportion of the variation in entrepreneurial behaviour. Labour shortages, the high cost of day-old chicks, elevated transport expenses and other production-related, economic, infrastructural and marketing difficulties emerged as the principal constraints faced by the farmers. The findings may guide the formulation of strategies for developing farm entrepreneurship and assist planners, policymakers, researchers and extension specialists in strengthening entrepreneurial behaviour and technology transfer among poultry farmers.

Induction of Biochemical Defence Compounds in Banana (Musa sp.) by Four Plant-based Biofungicides against Black Leaf Streak Disease (Mycosphaerella fijiensis)

Kouadio Abbas Kan Corchet Sintige — 2026-08-17

Black leaf streak disease, caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis, is the principal foliar disease affecting banana plants in tropical regions. Given the limitations of conventional chemical control, the use of biopesticides that mobilise plants’ natural defence mechanisms is a promising approach. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of the biopesticides PRORALY 50 EC, NECO 50 EC, FERCA 50 EC, and ASTOUN 50 EC, and the synthetic elicitor ACTIGARD 50 WG, on the biochemical responses of the banana varieties Grande Naine and Big Ebanga inoculated with M. fijiensis. The inhibitory efficacy of the treated banana extracts against M. fijiensis was assessed. The total polyphenol, condensed tannin, and flavonoid contents, as well as antioxidant activity, were determined before and after inoculation. The inhibition rates of spore germination and germ-tube growth of M. fijiensis were also determined. The biopesticides and synthetic elicitor significantly increased phenolic compound accumulation and enhanced the antioxidant capacity of banana plants compared with the controls. The most pronounced responses were observed with PRORALY 50 EC and NECO 50 EC, whereas FERCA 50 EC and ASTOUN 50 EC showed intermediate efficacy, outperforming ACTIGARD 50 WG, particularly in terms of fungal inhibition. Strong positive correlations were found among phenolic metabolites and antioxidant and antifungal activities, indicating the ability of the treatments to induce defence mechanisms against black leaf streak disease. These results indicate that the biopesticides evaluated, particularly PRORALY 50 EC and NECO 50 EC, are promising candidates for enhancing banana plants’ resistance to M. fijiensis. Their incorporation into integrated disease management strategies could help reduce reliance on synthetic fungicides and promote more sustainable banana production.

Impact Assessment of Technologies under FLDs for Improving Adoption, Productivity and Livelihood though Minor Millet Farming in Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, India

A. Srinivas — 2026-08-18

Minor millets, comprising kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), and barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea), are recognised as climate-resilient, nutrient-dense, and resource-efficient crops with significant potential to enhance food and nutritional security in rainfed and marginal production environments. The present study assessed the influence of Frontline Demonstrations (FLDs) on technology uptake, crop yields, economic returns, and overall living standards among small-scale minor millet growers in India. An ex-post facto research design was employed, and data were collected from 160 FLD beneficiary farmers selected from Dindori district of Madhya Pradesh and the Athiyandal region of Tamil Nadu through a structured interview schedule. Descriptive statistics, adoption indices, paired t-tests, correlation analysis, and multiple regression analysis were used to analyse the data. The findings revealed increased adoption of recommended production technologies following FLDs. Technology adoption increased by 33% in Dindori and 29% in Athiyandal, while grain yield increased by 26% and 22%, respectively. Net returns increased by 22% and 20%, with corresponding improvements of 12% and 10% in the benefit–cost ratio. Significant increases were observed in grain yield, fodder yield, net returns, and the benefit–cost ratio, demonstrating the effectiveness of FLDs in enhancing farm productivity and profitability. The study concludes that Frontline Demonstrations are an effective extension intervention for promoting sustainable minor millet cultivation and recommends strengthening extension services, quality seed supply, value addition, and market linkages to accelerate the adoption of improved technologies and enhance farmers' livelihoods.

Assessment of Factors Influencing Farm Implement Purchase and Constraints Faced by Farmers in Kachchh District, Gujarat, India

Dilip M. Dhila — 2026-08-19

The present study was undertaken to analyse the factors influencing farmers’ purchase decisions and the problems faced in the purchase of farm implements in the Kachchh district of Gujarat. A descriptive research design was adopted, and primary data were collected from 200 tractor-owning farmers selected purposively from 20 villages across Anjar, Bhuj, Bhachau, and Mundra talukas from December 2025 to March 2026. Secondary data were obtained from published reports and official sources. Percentage and tabular analyses were employed to examine the socio-economic characteristics of farmers and the ownership pattern of tractors and farm implements, while the Weighted Average Mean (WAM) technique was used to identify key purchase factors, influential promotional tools and major constraints. The findings revealed that the majority of farmers were middle-aged, belonged to small and marginal farm categories and possessed moderate levels of income. Ownership of farm implements was largely concentrated in primary and secondary tillage implements. Price/affordability, durability and field performance emerged as the most critical purchase attributes, while field demonstrations, word of mouth and dealer recommendations were the most effective promotional tools. High initial cost, lack of finance and high repair and operating costs were the most severe constraints. The study concludes that improving access to institutional credit, strengthening after-sales support services and promoting demonstration-based extension activities can facilitate wider adoption of farm implements and enhance the level of farm mechanisation in the region.

A Comparative Economic Assessment of Certified Organic (Traditional and HYV) Rice and Inorganic Rice Cultivation in Pudukkottai District of Tamil Nadu, India

M. Vinoth — 2026-08-19

Aim: Rice is a critical crop for a nation's food security. The study estimated the costs and returns, production function, resource-use efficiency, and constraints in certified organic traditional, certified organic HYV, and inorganic rice cultivation using primary data collected from 100 rice farmers in the study area. Analytical tools such as fixed- and variable-cost concepts, the Cobb-Douglas production function, the Marginal Value Product: Marginal Factor Cost (MVP/MFC) ratio, and Garrett’s ranking technique were used.

Place and Duration of the Study: Pudukkottai district, a rice-growing region located in the Cauvery Delta Zone of Tamil Nadu, was purposively chosen as the study area. Primary data were obtained from rice farmers during February-March 2026 using a pre-tested and structured interview schedule. The duration of the study was six months.

Results: Marginal and small farmers constituted 80 per cent of the sample, indicating the prevalence of small-scale rice farming among the sample farms. Human labour and machinery were major components of the total cost of rice cultivation. Returns per rupee of investment were higher for traditional rice (1.42), followed by organic HYV (1.25) and inorganic rice (1.15). Production function analysis revealed that organic inputs and machinery had a positive and significant influence on organic rice yield, whereas seed, neem seed kernel extract, irrigation, and machinery had a positive and significant influence in inorganic rice farms. The constraints reported by farmers were low yield of organic rice, high cost of weeding, and lack of quality seeds in both traditional and organic HYV rice cultivation, whereas pest and disease incidence, high cost of weeding, and labour scarcity were reported in inorganic rice cultivation.

Conclusion: Traditional rice cultivation was more profitable than organic HYV and inorganic rice. In addition, traditional and organic HYV rice cultivation were eco-friendly alternatives for obtaining higher income and protecting soil health.

Effects of Container Type on Growth and Biomass of Nursery-grown Species Useful for Reforestation Species in Burkina Faso, West Africa

Seydou Kroma — 2026-08-19

Reforestation success depends heavily on the quality of transplanted seedlings. Seedling quality can be influenced by the nursery containers in which they are grown. The study assessed the effect of three container types (soil block, plastic bag containers and palm leaf basket containers) in two sizes (small and medium formats) on the in-nursery height and diameter growth, biomass (above- and below-ground) and survival over six months of four woody species (Adansonia digitata, Leucaena leucocephala, Tamarindus indica and Sclerocarya birrea) useful for reforestation in semi-arid ecosystems. The study was conducted at the experimental nursery of the Saria Research Station, Burkina Faso. The results showed that the container types significantly influenced the growth in diameter and height as well as the accumulation of biomass (P<0.001) of the studied plants. Medium-sized palm leaf basket containers (MPL) and medium-sized plastic bag containers (MPB) yielded the highest growth and biomass performance in all species. The MPL containers yielded maximum heights of 155.02±45.03 cm for L. leucocephala and 73.45±27.33 cm for S. birrea, and maximum diameters of 8.29±3.39 mm for L. leucocephala. The MPB containers induced diameters reaching 9.67±2.50 mm in A. digitata. A root biomass of 4.76±3.20 g was recorded in T. indica when grown in MPL containers. These results indicate that, regardless of the type of container, the use of a medium-sized container promotes optimal root development and increased growth of nursery-grown plants. These observations support the adoption of large biodegradable containers to improve the quality of replanted tree seedlings. This has potential to enhance outcomes of reforestation efforts, for the sustainable restoration of degraded land in semi-arid ecosystems. However, it will be important to assess the effect of these different containers on the survival and growth of these woody species after field (reforestation) transplanting to draw clearer conclusions about field performance.

Heterosis Assessment for Stem Rot Resistant Hybrids in Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea L.)

Garvit Agrawal — 2026-08-20

Brassica juncea (L.) is a key oilseed crop that is extensively grown worldwide for edible oil and animal feed. However, various biotic and abiotic stresses, together with a narrow genetic base, keep productivity below the desired level, underscoring the need to expand the genetic base and utilise heterosis to develop superior cultivars with resistance or tolerance to major diseases. The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate standard heterosis for seed yield and its attributing traits among 50 diverse cross combinations developed during Rabi, 2025 and evaluated during Rabi, 2026, along with the zonal (Rohini) and national (Kranti) checks at the Research Farm, Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Morena, RVSKVV, Gwalior, M.P., India, using putative donors for stem rot resistance. Significant variability existed for yield and its attributing characters, with seed yield per plant ranging from 11.2 g for the cross L-6 × BC₁F₅ of Pusa Jai Kisan × Brassica napus 114 to 42.0 g for the cross Pusa Bold × F₃ of Pusa Jai Kisan × Brassica napus 114. Strong hybrid vigour was evident in cross combinations such as Varuna × BC₁F₅ of Pusa Jai Kisan × Brassica napus 114, Sej-2 × BC₂F₁ of Pusa Jai Kisan × Brassica napus 114, and Shraddha × BC₂F₁ of Pusa Jai Kisan × Brassica napus 114, which showed high positive heterosis for yield and its component traits, including number of siliquae per plant, number of seeds per siliqua, 1000-seed weight, and earliness. The yield potential of these crosses was further supported by architectural traits, including longer racemes and a higher number of branches per plant. These results highlight the potential of targeted hybridisation to overcome current yield constraints. These promising cross combinations indicate that heterosis breeding may be used to improve yield in Indian mustard while incorporating resistance to Sclerotinia stem rot disease.

An Economic analysis of Value Chain and Marketing Efficiency of Tomato in Davanagere District of Karnataka, India

S. Raveesha — 2026-08-20

This study examined value addition and marketing efficiency in the tomato value chain in Davanagere district, Karnataka, using primary data from 60 farmers and 15 market intermediaries. A multistage sampling procedure was used, and three marketing channels were identified: Channel I (Producer → Commission Agent → Wholesaler → Retailer → Consumer), Channel II (Producer → Retailer → Consumer), and Channel III (Producer → Reliance Retail Limited → Collection Centre → Supermarket → Consumer). Marketing costs, gross value addition, price spread, producer’s share in the consumer’s rupee, and Acharya’s marketing efficiency index were estimated for comparison. Channel III provided the highest net price to farmers (₹2702.50/qtl), total gross value addition (₹3495.00/qtl), producer’s share in the consumer’s rupee (65.91%), and marketing efficiency (1.93). Channel II recorded the lowest price spread (₹1117.50/qtl) and a marketing efficiency of 1.23, while Channel I recorded the lowest marketing efficiency (0.52) and producer’s share (33.90%). The results indicate that channels with fewer intermediaries or organised retail linkages were associated with higher producer returns and improved marketing efficiency. However, the continued use of the traditional channel reflects farmers’ dependence on commission agents for credit, advance payments, market support, and the sale of ungraded produce. Strengthening direct market linkages, organised procurement, grading, storage, cold-chain facilities, transportation, and institutional credit may improve value-chain performance and farmers’ market outcomes.

Economic Analysis of Garlic Cultivation in Baran District of Rajasthan, India

Gopesh Kumari — 2026-08-20

Garlic is an important commercial spice crop that contributes significantly to farmers’ income. The present study was conducted in Baran district of Rajasthan to analyse the cultivation costs and returns in garlic. Primary data were collected from 80 garlic farmers during the agricultural year 2023–24 through the personal interview method using a structured schedule. Data collected were analysed using the standard cost concepts recommended by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) to estimate the component-wise cost of cultivation, different cost concepts and profitability of garlic cultivation. The results revealed that the average total cost of garlic cultivation was ₹193,415.34 per hectare. Operational costs constituted the major share (89.1%) of the total cost, while fixed costs accounted for 10.9%. Garlic cloves were the largest cost component, contributing 46.9%t of the total cultivation cost, followed by human labour (20.0%) and machine labour (8.1%). The average gross return, net return and production costs were estimated to ₹552,775.37 per hectare, ₹359,360.02 per hectare and ₹3,502.63 per quintal, respectively. The input–output ratio was found to be 1:2.86, indicating that garlic cultivation was economically profitable in the study area. The study concludes that garlic cultivation offers substantial economic returns to farmers. Improving access to quality seed, reducing labour costs through mechanisation and promoting efficient input use can further enhance the profitability and sustainability of garlic cultivation in Rajasthan.

On-Farm Assessment of Green Gram Varieties for Yellow Mosaic Virus Resistance and Higher Yield in Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu to Enhance Specificity

M. Saravanan — 2026-08-21

An on-farm assessment was conducted during the kharif season of 2024 in Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu, India, to select a superior green gram variety for cultivation under the specified conditions. India occupies a leading position globally in pulse production and consumption, while also depending heavily on imports to meet domestic requirements. The growing demand for pulses, coupled with inadequate domestic availability, has created a significant supply–demand imbalance in the country. Seven farmers’ fields were randomly selected, and three high-yielding improved varieties of green gram, namely VBN 5, DGG 1, and LGG 630, were evaluated across five replications, along with a locally cultivated farmer-preferred check variety for comparison. Growth, nodulation, disease response, and productivity traits were evaluated by recording plant height, nodules per plant, branches per plant, pods per plant, MYMV incidence, grain yield (q ha⁻¹), and benefit–cost ratio. Among the genotypes evaluated, VBN 5 exhibited superior performance, producing the highest pod count of 31.8 pods plant⁻¹ and recording the lowest MYMV incidence (4.1%), together with the highest grain yield of 8.15 q ha⁻¹. It was followed by LGG 630 and DGG 1, which recorded 30.2 and 29.4 pods plant⁻¹, MYMV incidences of 5.1 and 5.3%, and yields of 7.90 and 7.20 q ha⁻¹, respectively. The findings indicated that VBN 5 was the most promising green gram variety, followed by LGG 630 and DGG 1. Its greater acceptance among farmers in Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu, was associated with reduced MYMV incidence, improved grain productivity, and a favourable benefit–cost ratio, making it a suitable option for local cultivation.

Response of Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to Different Fertility Levels and Biofertilizer Inoculation

Durganand Kumar — 2026-08-21

A field experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2025-26 at the Agricultural Research Farm, School of Agricultural Sciences, Jaipur National University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, to evaluate the response of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to different fertility levels and biofertilizer inoculation. The results showed that among the fertility levels, 100% RDF recorded significantly higher growth parameters, including plant height, number of tillers, dry matter accumulation, crop growth rate and relative growth rate. It also produced the highest yield attributes and yield, namely effective tillers, ear length, grains ear^-1, test weight, grain yield (4403 kg ha^-1), straw yield (5253 kg ha^-1) and biological yield (9656 kg ha^-1). However, 125% RDF was statistically at par with 100% RDF. Among biofertilizer treatments, Azotobacter + PSB produced significantly higher growth parameters and recorded the highest grain yield (4296 kg ha^-1), straw yield (5166 kg ha^-1) and biological yield (9462 kg ha^-1), while Azospirillum + PSB remained at par with Azotobacter + PSB. The interaction between fertility levels and biofertilizers significantly affected plant height, dry matter accumulation, grain yield, straw yield and net return. The combination of 100% RDF with Azotobacter + PSB recorded the maximum grain yield (4565 kg ha^-1) and straw yield (5415 kg ha^-1).

Evaluation of Competitive Ability of Petiveria alliacea L. and Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray in a Two-species Replacement Series Study in Ibadan, Nigeria

Dare O. Ayoola — 2026-08-21

Petiveria alliacea (Pa) is an invasive weed species that is spreading in the rainforest zone of Ibadan, Nigeria. This study investigated the dominance and competitive ability of Petiveria alliacea relative to Tithonia diversifolia (Td), another aggressive invasive weed species in the rainforest agroecological zon♂e. This competitive ability was assessed using four monoculture densities (1, 2, 4 and 8 plants/pot) and three mixture densities (1:1, 2:2, 4:4) of P. alliacea and T. diversifolia plants/pot, laid out in a Completely Randomised Design (CRD). Plant dry weight (PDW), Relative Yield (RY), Relative Yield Total (RYT), and aggressivity index were determined. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA at α = 0.05. The RY values of Pa and Td were 0.81 and 0.56, respectively, while RYT (1.37) exceeded unity, indicating a synergistic relationship. Pa showed positive aggressivity (0.06) over Td. The interspecific competition between the species at the three densities was more intense than the corresponding intraspecific competition. This implies that Petiveria alliacea outcompeted Tithonia diversifolia, which may be due to the deeper taproot system of P. alliacea compared with that of T. diversifolia. Therefore, farmers should discourage the establishment of Petiveria alliacea at high densities in their fields.

Effect of Plant Growth Regulators on Growth and Yield of Guava (Psidium guajava L.) cv. Gwalior-27 in the Gird Agro-climatic Zone of Madhya Pradesh, India

Gourav N — 2026-08-22

A field experiment was conducted during Mrig Bahar 2025–26 at the Guava Orchard, Vikrant University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, to evaluate the response of guava (Psidium guajava L.) cv. Gwalior-27 to the foliar application of gibberellic acid (GA₃), naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and their combinations. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomised block design with nine treatments and three replications. The treatment schedule consisted of nine treatments: control (water spray), GA₃at 50 and 100 ppm, NAA at 50 and 100 ppm, and four combinations of GA₃ + NAA. Significant improvements were observed in vegetative growth, flowering and yield attributes under combined PGR application. T₇ (GA₃ @ 100 ppm + NAA @ 100 ppm) recorded the highest plant height at 90 DAT (355.0 cm), number of leaves per plant⁻¹ (40.4), shoot length (42.6 cm), canopy spread (4.0 m), flowers per plant⁻¹ (405.0), fruit set (89.2%), fruits per plant⁻¹ (323.0), average fruit weight (210.0 g) and fruit yield (339.0 q ha⁻¹). This treatment also recorded the earliest flowering (35.2 days). The results indicate that the combined use of GA₃ and NAA, especially at 100 ppm each, may improve the growth and productivity of guava cv. Gwalior-27 in the Gird agro-climatic zone.

Evaluation of Rice yellow mottle virus Resistance and its Impact on Agronomic Performance in Aromatic Rice Lines

Lucien Kaboré — 2026-08-22

Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) is one of the most destructive viral diseases limiting rice production in Africa. Identifying genotypes that combine resistance with superior agronomic performance is essential for developing improved cultivars. This study evaluated 61 aromatic rice lines and three reference genotypes differing in RYMV resistance under greenhouse conditions using healthy and mechanically inoculated plants. Agronomic and disease-related traits were analysed by two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical clustering on principal components (HCPC), and the Multi-trait Genotype–Ideotype Distance Index (MGIDI). RYMV infection significantly affected all measured traits (P < 0.001), reducing grain yield (65.3%), above-ground biomass (23.6%), plant height (13.6%), panicle length (11.2%), panicle number (13.3%), and thousand-grain weight (16.2%), while increasing spikelet sterility by 208.0%. Significant genotype × health interactions revealed contrasting responses among genotypes. PCA explained 59.0% of the total phenotypic variation and showed that yield-related traits were negatively associated with spikelet sterility and disease severity. HCPC grouped the genotypes into four distinct clusters according to their agronomic performance and disease response. MGIDI identified ten superior genotypes (Remar2, Remar4, Remar11, Remar13, Remar28, RemarGT, K20-26, K20-Germ13, Basmati370, and the highly resistant control TOG5681) that combined high yield potential with reduced disease impact. These genotypes constitute valuable genetic resources for breeding high-yielding, RYMV-resistant aromatic rice cultivars.

Farmers' Perceptions and Ecological Impacts of Soil Tillage Practices

B. Hamadou Younoussa — 2026-08-22

Conventional soil tillage can alter soil organisms and soil functions, yet field evidence from semi-arid West Africa remains limited. This exploratory study assessed farmers' perceptions of soil fauna and compared selected soil and crop indicators under tilled and untilled millet plots in Dosso Commune, Niger. The social component included 380 farmers from 10 villages organised into 20 focus groups. The field component comprised six 12 m² plots, with three tilled plots and three untilled control plots. Soil fauna were collected by visual search and hand collection, soil samples were composited from 0–20 cm depth within each plot, water infiltration time was measured descriptively, and millet ear and grain yields were assessed. Seventy-five percent of respondents recognised the importance of soil-faunal biodiversity, 60% associated soil organisms with improved crop yield, and 70% perceived tillage as harmful to soil organisms. Farmers ranked restoration of degraded land (46%), soil fertilisation (36%), and biological control (18%) as the principal agriculture-related ecosystem services. Ants (40%) and termites (30%) were the organisms most frequently reported. Complete infiltration required 60 min in the tilled treatment and 30 min in the untilled treatment. Mean millet ear and grain yields were 94.44 and 72.22 kg/ha in tilled plots and 61.11 and 33.33 kg/ha in untilled plots, respectively. Because field replication was limited and treatment comparisons were descriptive, the results should be interpreted as site-specific patterns rather than causal estimates. Overall, the findings support further replicated evaluation of reduced soil disturbance together with residue, weed, and crop-management practices in the Sahel.

Optimizing Irrigation Scheduling and Nitrogen Levels for Improved Yield Attributes and Grain Yield in Maize (Zea mays L.)

B. Soujanya — 2026-08-22

Efficient management of irrigation and nitrogen is essential for improving maize productivity under conditions of increasing water scarcity and rising fertiliser costs. A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on the yield attributes and productivity of maize (Zea mays L.). The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with three irrigation schedules based on depletion of available soil moisture (DASM) [60% (I₁), 40% (I₂) and 20% (I₃)] assigned to the main plots and three nitrogen levels [90 (N₁), 180 (N₂) and 240 kg N ha⁻¹ (N₃)] allotted to the subplots, with three replications.

Irrigation scheduling significantly influenced most of the yield attributes and yield of maize. Irrigation at 20% DASM (I₃) recorded the highest number of grain rows per cob (16.6), grains per row (37.6), grains m⁻² (4928), grains per cob (624), test weight (27.3 g), grain yield (9080 kg ha⁻¹) and stover yield (11493 kg ha⁻¹). Nitrogen application significantly increased grain and stover yields, whereas its effect on most yield attributes was not significant. Significant irrigation × nitrogen interactions were observed for grains per row, grains per cob, grain yield and stover yield, indicating that the crop response to nitrogen was strongly dependent on soil moisture availability. Among the treatment combinations, irrigation at 20% DASM combined with 240 kg N ha⁻¹ (I₃N₃) recorded the highest grain yield (10214 kg ha⁻¹), stover yield (12611 kg ha⁻¹) and grains per cob (683), although grain yield was statistically comparable to I₃N₂. The study demonstrated that maintaining irrigation at 20% DASM together with 180–240 kg N ha⁻¹ markedly improved maize productivity, with 180 kg N ha⁻¹ producing grain yields comparable to 240 kg N ha⁻¹ under adequate soil moisture conditions.