Journal of Experimental Agriculture International

Organic and natural farming are increasingly promoted as responses to the coupled crises of climate change, soil degradation and input dependence. Yet their climate-smart credentials are frequently asserted from labels or individual practices rather than evaluated across productivity, adaptation and mitigation, with food-system and distributional effects made explicit. This critical narrative review synthesises peer-reviewed evidence published from 1990 to 5 June 2026, with earlier foundational material retained where necessary. It distinguishes regulated organic agriculture from heterogeneous natural-farming movements and evaluates both through a climate-smart framework. Organic systems generally enhance soil biological activity, on-farm biodiversity and input-use efficiency, and they can improve water regulation and yield stability where rotations, cover crops, organic amendments and diversified habitats are well designed. They also avoid most synthetic nitrogen fertiliser and pesticide inputs. These advantages do not translate automatically into lower climate impacts: average yield gaps, uncertain additionality and permanence of soil carbon, manure-related nitrous oxide, nutrient import dependence and land-use displacement can offset field-level gains. Evidence for natural farming is promising but geographically concentrated, especially in India; recent farm studies report competitive yields, lower purchased-input costs and biodiversity benefits, whereas modelling warns of nutrient constraints during large-scale conversion. The decisive unit of analysis is therefore the farming system in its landscape, dietary and nutrient-cycling context, not the production label. Climate-smart transitions should combine practice bundles with outcome-based measurement, region-specific nutrient budgets, safeguards against leakage, farmer-centred learning and policies that reward public goods without shifting risk to labour-constrained or resource-poor households. The review concludes that organic and natural farming can make substantial contributions to climate-smart agriculture, but only conditionally and as components of broader food-system transformation.